Color and it's Effect on Behavior Modification in Correctional / Detention Facilities

By: I.S.K. Reeves V, F.A.I.A.

Man, during his evolution, has utilized color as symbols important to biological survival. Our ability to employ, and subsequently exploit color has created an "anarchy of color" with little relationship to actual psychological and physiological response. Utilization of color, considering these responses, must create coherent and intelligent built environments. Correctional / Detention facilities, housing hundreds of thousands of individuals, have the opportunity and the responsibility to effect behavior of these individuals, in a positive manner, by using color in it's proper context.

Several years ago, while initiating design concepts for a major county detention facility located in Central Florida, we made what we felt was a significant discovery. This discovery was generated by a series of interviews, conducted by our firm, that were held with groups of inmates of varying classifications. We elected to interview inmates because we wished to more fully comprehend the psychological effects of their environment upon them in hopes of then affecting it in some progressive and humane way. The eternal optimism and naivety of architects was once again demonstrated.

What the discovery involved, simply stated, was the almost universal statement, made by inmates, that they hated the colors, or lack of colors in their jail. Like most architects we had never considered, to any relative degree, the effect of the colors we selected other than their contribution toward the total aesthetics of the structure.

Obviously, a subject mentioned by almost all individuals in those interviews, was of importance and warranted further consideration. Our greatest surprise was when we found that little, if any, definitive research or information was available. Inquires to such progressive sources as the National Institute of Justice, the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, the American Correctional Association and the American Institute of Architects, to name just a few, provided little information or documentation regarding color. We then embarked upon extensive literature review, which subsequently became the basis of our understanding of color and it's effect on behavior modification. But first, let us review a few general comments about color.

Man, to clearly define his abilities, has little to boast about in terms of sensory capabilities. Many other animals can hear better, smell better and certainly see with a much greater acuity. We are, however, a match or all in one important aspect - our ability to see color. Researchers tell us that the ability to see is limited to insects, fish, reptiles, birds, our closest relatives, apes, monkeys, and man; In fact, most mammals are virtually colorblind. We must assume that this ability to distinguish color in our environment has evolved because it was an important contribution to our biological survival.

To be able to distinguish between similar objects is an obvious beneficial attribute, as for example the ability to differentiate between a poisonous object and a non-poisonous one. Similarly, color, which may be the only difference between similar objects, can help us determine potential threats of life saving food sources. Color then evolved as a series of messages which, when naturally and logically utilized, played an important, perhaps critical role in our evolution.

It is interesting to note that studies of language and the origins of words indicate that we acquired color terms or vocabulary in a defined and recognizable chronological order, which may be interpreted as a sequence of evolutionary stages. From the earliest to the latest, the introductions of words defining color are:



Man learned at an early stage in this evolution process to apply or utilize color in places and on objects where it does not occur or grow naturally. This ability to employ color has almost become a trademark of the human species. Unfortunately, this exploitation of color, frequently used indiscriminately, has created what can best be described as the "anarchy of color". Color, evolving to induce a specific reaction, when used without respect to its purpose, dulls our biological response. Man, blessed with most important sensory attribute, has done all that can to destroy the true meanings of color.

Extensive research is beginning to define how important color is to our environment. We know, as an example, that color can strongly influence the growth patterns of plants by a significant degree. Mammals are not immune to this biological response to color. Growth in rats has been found to be substantially increased under red lights and virtually unchanged by blue light.

Of an even greater significance is the fact that man and other animals, like plants, are influenced biologically by color "whether or not the color is actually seen by them". In other words an individual can be color blind, yet still have similar biological responses such as increased brain activity, in response to color. It is not necessary, though certainly more enjoyable, to see color in order to elicit response. It is important to acknowledge that the incidence of defective color vision, commonly termed "color blindness", is extremely high in North America. Classifying world population in zones of defective vision varying from 1 person in 50 as a low, to1 person in 12 as the high, we can determine, through testing, that the most technologically advanced areas, Europe and the United States, have the highest percentage of persons with defective vision. Defective color vision does not mean total inability to distinguish between colors, rather that certain hues are confused. Primal to the North American Population, this relates to visual confusion of red and orange with yellow and green.

Our responses to various colors are many and varied. Red, as an example causes significantly greater response in heart rate, respiration, brainwave activity and other nervous system functions than does the color green. Speculation about this differential response centers on association with wavelengths of the color as they relate to the visible spectrum.

These two extremes of the spectrum, red and green, produce noticeably different biological responses. Reds produce recordable muscular reaction, while green and blue have the reverse effects. Orange and yellow are similar, but to a lesser degree than red, while purple and violet produce reactions comparable to blue.

GSR (Galvanic Skin Response) is noticeable greater when tested in association with red, as compared to the response of shorter wavelength colors, such as blue or green.

These biological and to some aspect, psychological responses are to be considered and evaluated in response to ongoing testing and research. It is an unfortunate fact, as succinctly stated by Peter K. Kaiser, that...."There are those who have a low scientific criterion for accepting reports of color reactions and those who have a rather stringent scientific criterion".

Color Preferences

We individually have our personal preferences for different colors, but general assumptions can be made which illustrate general preferences. Research tends to indicate that these general preferences are based upon biological causes and that these preferences undergo significant and measurable change as we go through the aging process. Basically, we can identify three distinct periods of color preferences and subsequent change.

Color Preferences from high to low based on age group:



The first major change, occurring around the age of six, is believed to coincide with the psycho-physiological changes that occur in the human body, i.e., the period of change in teeth. As man reaches advanced age, there is a gradual process of deterioration of the eye, the forming of a layer of skin, which tends to modify the perception of color, producing a difficulty in discrimination between green and blue. Perhaps the eye is seeking "peace" in the passive colors - the blue and green hues possibly being perceived as neutrals.

Color preferences must, however, be viewed in response to sociological as well as physiological preferences. The American Indian, as an example, constituting a significant portion of inmate population in some Southwest states, defines color based upon sociological criteria with implications as to use in the built environments.

Generally speaking, as we must because tribal differences vary greatly, their preferences (high to low) are red, blue, violet, green, orange and yellow. To the American Indian, red symbolized day and black symbolized night, masculine colors were red, yellow and black, feminine colors were white, blue and green.

The differences of preference, when based upon male/female choices, were initially studied in 1941 and have generally been confirmed by subsequent research. While not dramatic, they do indicate that preferred colors are virtually identical with only a slight change in yellow and orange preferences.



Sociological implications of color are messages that we have evolved to express viewpoints, social position, social position, availability, mourning, etc., an infinite series of communications. Black, as an example, is worn in many Western countries to express mourning, while the same color is worn, by using body paint, by many African tribes in ceremonies to attract the dark, rain-bearing clouds and the associated fertility that follows.

Red, to further illustrate the potential contrasts, represents a surmised universal color of revolution, as reflected in the banners and flags, which proliferate during revolutionary periods. This same color is used in a decidedly non-stress situation when employed by Indians of the Amazon River basin to define tribal association. Color must then be considered with extreme caution, analyzed and utilized in the context of the social environment as well as physical. Utilization resembles a game of three-dimensional chess with factors of varying dimensions considered. With these very basic understandings of color, let us now discuss individual colors and how we perceive them in relation to our physical environments and as they can and do affect behavior.

Blue

Man has always, through association with the sky and oceans, considered blue to express infinity. Associated with the social status of royalty throughout the ages, it is considered in obvious esteem such as the awarding of a "blue ribbon", to such a degree that is considered the favorite choice of our society. Utilization in the physical environment has been associated with a calming effect and, as previously noted, with the lowering of blood pressure, an ideal result for spaces, such as inmate dayrooms, when a restful, peaceful environment is desired. A decidedly "cool" color, it psychologically reduces the actual temperature of an area, and increases the apparent size rooms. Time is underestimated, an ideal reaction in an area where routine tasks, or lack of thereof, are performed.

Red

One of the first colors to be included in our language, it has significant physiological effects upon our central nervous system. As noted earlier, it increases brain wave activity and stimulates the gland to release adrenalin into the blood stream. Red, our second most favorite color is certainly a "warm color". It causes time to be overestimated and is appropriate for spaces where you desire the individual to feel as if greater amount of time has been spent that actually had, such as in dining or visitation space.

Thus, it is appropriate for social contact areas, but those in which the inmate is not retained for significant or prolonged periods.

It decreases the perceived size of rooms, and impacts a sense of warmth, beneficial for areas that may be actually cooler than desired.

Green

We have long associated green with the process of growth and life. It is the most restful color to the eye and thus is easily perceived.

Green, with physiological reactions, the opposite of red, tends to reduce nervous system activity and muscular tension. It is considered a match for blue in being a "cool" color and thus makes time appear to be shorter, makes rooms seem to be larger and weights or objects to be lighter. Studies conducted by NASA place green in the category of the colors associated with pleasant odors and taste, appropriate for food preparation areas when the proper shades are utilized.

A "cool" color, such as green, is utilized in areas where social contact is not desired, yet it is considered by many scientist to be neutral, or approaching neutrality.

Violet

Perceived in the middle of best and least like, it remains a color composed of red and blue, the two ends of the physiological response spectrum. Violet has long been associated with sensuality, with a rich history in our literature. Admittedly, the difficulty with violet is the almost universal inability of scholars and scientists to clearly define how it affects man and what responses are generated, in sufficient clarity, to comprehend meaning.

It is considered to be a "heavy" color with many unpleasant and subconscious responses. Obviously a color to be carefully considered before selection in any environment, yet most individuals associate violet with a historic content of sovereignty and dignity.

Orange

As noted in several studies dealing with color, orange suffers "something of an identity crisis". Closely associated with red, and thus a "warm color", it is indicative of this lack of identity to reflect that it did not occur in our (European) vocabulary until the tenth or eleventh century, when it was introduced as a food source. Orange is an earth color, and as such, produces feelings of association with nature. It is utilized in many areas, including fashion, decorating and the built environment.

Orange, with perceived high appetite appeal, is used extensively in food service environments. Generally employed, not in itÕs pure form, but in varying shades, such as peach, salmon, and brown, it is an ideal color for health care/medical clinic areas. It is a cheering color and, like red, induces the individual to feel that a greater amount of time has passed than actually has.

Yellow

A highly visible color, it serves man in many areas as a visual message associated with safety, particularly in transportation or related activity. Yellow is a cheerful color and yet ranks last in universal color preferences tests.

It is decidedly "warm" color and has been employed extensively in the packaging of heavy objects, to psychologically make them appear lighter. It is an appropriate color to use in an environment when the temperature is warm, the room small and a restful atmosphere is desired.

Yellow has the highest reflectivity of all colors with benefits in poorly lighted areas where increased illumination is desired. It is the intensity of the color, which must be carefully selected for the built environment. This is perhaps best explained by noting dream associations of varying shades; deep yellow being associated with jealousy and deceit, pale yellow with material comfort certainly opposite on a conceptual scale.

Application of Color

The utilization of colors in a specific environment, such as a correctional facility, is hopefully the product of a knowledge base and desire to effect, in a positive manner, the behavior of the individuals incarcerated.

I have, on a very broad basis, outlined results of several research studies dealing with psychological and physiological responses to color. The application of these colors, for typical areas with a correctional/detention facility, can be suggested ion equally broad terms, as illustrated on the attached chart.

Conclusion

The research that we have conducted, and to larger extent reviewed, has admittedly found wide diversification in opinion as to how and why color affects the human being. The world of color is full of contradiction and, all research aside, psychological effects are extremely difficult to measure in scientifically accepted terms.

We found, to our amazement, an almost complete lack of definitive research regarding color as it relates to behavior modification in a correctional facility. Hundreds of thousands of persons are incarcerated in confined spaces for substantial periods of time...some for the rest of their lives. The behavior of these inmates and anything, which dramatically affects that behavior, is of basic importance.

The intelligent use of color must become a full partner in the built environment. It is needed for proper mental, physical and emotional balance and to create a more coherent and intelligent environment. Whether it is a correctional facility or an office building is not really the issue; the important fact is that it is incumbent on all architects to be aware and knowledgeable of how we can affect, in a positive manner, the environments we create.